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A new chapter on the are not meant as a substitute for clinical and public health response to a deliberate release microbiological textbooks discount 100 mg januvia with mastercard diabetes mellitus y cansancio. The objective of this section is to 6 Acquisitiondealswiththeincubationperiod discount januvia 100mg with visa diabetes mellitus type 1 pathophysiology, allow an orientation on Public Health struc- infectious period (if communicable) buy januvia 100 mg line diabete ezy, infective tures relevant for infectious disease control dose (if known) and any important factors af- in various European countries and to offer a fecting immunity or susceptibility. Apersistent LindaParrsadministrativeskillswereessential lowormoderatelevelofdiseaseisreferredtoas as was the help of Claire Bonnet at Blackwell endemic and a higher persistent level is called Science. An irregular pattern with occa- and work colleagues for their patience and sional cases occurring at irregular intervals is support whilst we were preoccupied with this called sporadic. Whenanepidemic spreads over several countries or continents it epidemiology and is called pandemic. An epidemic curve, a frequency his- togramofnumberofcasesagainstdateofonset disease (see Figs 4. If ex- posure to the infectious agent takes place over a relatively brief period, a point source outbreak The epidemiological framework occurs. Intermittent or continuous exposure broadens the peaks of the epidemic curve, and Identication so an irregular pattern is observed. An out- break that spreads from person to person is Infections can be identified by their clinical called a propagated outbreak. In theory the epi- features, epidemiology and the use of appro- demic curve of a propagated outbreak would priate laboratory procedures. Usually the epi- demic wanes after a few generations because Thetraditionalmodelofinfectiousdiseasecau- the number of susceptible people falls below a sation is the epidemiological triangle. Some epidemic curves have both three components: an external agent, a sus- commonsourceepidemicandpropagatedepi- ceptible host and environmental factors that demic features because of secondary person- bring the host and the agent together. Host factors influence an individ- occurrence of infectious diseases: uals exposure, susceptibility or response to a causative agent. Environmental factors are extrinsic factors The chain of infection that affect the agent and the opportunity for exposure. Many of some people the disease may never progress to the common infectious diseases have human a clinically apparent illness. In others the dis- reservoirs, which include clinical cases, those ease process may result in a wide spectrum of who are incubating the disease and convales- clinical illness, ranging from mild to severe or cent carriers. Infectious diseases that are transmissible from animals to This is the time during which an infectious humans are called zoonoses. The portal of exit is agent may be transferred directly or indirectly the path by which an agent leaves the source from an infected person to another person. The portal of and Salmonella infection the infectious period entry is the route by which an agent enters a may be lengthy and intermittent. Mode of transmission Susceptibility and resistance This is the mechanism by which an infectious This describes the various biological mecha- agent is spread from a source or reservoir to nismsthatpresentbarrierstotheinvasionand a susceptible person. The mechanisms are de- multiplicationofinfectiousagentsandtodam- tailed in Table 1. There may be in- herent resistance in addition to immunity as a result of previous infection or immunisation. Natural history of disease The following terms are used to describe the outcomes of exposure to an infectious agent: Thisreferstotheprogressofadiseaseprocessin an individual over time without intervention. Following exposure to an infectious agent there is then a period of subclinical or inap- Infectivity: the proportion of exposed persons who parentpathologicalchanges,whichendswith become infected, also known as the attack rate. This period is known Pathogenicity: the proportion of infected persons who develop clinical disease. For a given infectious Virulence: the proportion of persons with clinical disease, the incubation period has a range and disease who become severely ill or die (case ameanvalue. Examples mucous membranes of the eye, nose or are scabies, head lice, ringworm and impetigo. Respiratory route Sneezing, coughing, singing and even talking may spread respiratory droplets from an infected person to someone close by. Examples are the common cold, inuenza, whooping cough and meningococcal infection. Faecaloral route Gastrointestinal infections can spread when faeces are transferred directly to the mouth of a susceptible host. Indirect transmission Faecaloral route This may be vehicle-borne involving Faeces contaminate food or objects like toys or toilet inanimate materials or objects (fomites), ush handles. This is particularly instruments or dressings; or water, food, important in viral gastroenteritis when vomiting occurs milk or biological products such as blood. Examples of infections spread in this way develop in or on the vehicle before are food poisoning and hepatitis A. This in turn may be The blood-borne route mechanical and includes simple carriage by There is transfer of blood or body uids from an a crawling or ying insect as a result of infected person to another person through a break in soiling of its feet or proboscis or by the skin such as a bite wound or open cut or through passage of organisms through its inoculation, injection or transfusion. Air-borne spread Examples are infection with Legionella, Coxiella and in Air-borne spread is the dissemination of a some circumstances tuberculosis. Microbial aerosols are suspensions of particles that may remain suspended in the air for long periods of time. Particles in the range of 15 microns are easily drawn into the alveoli and may be retained there. Droplets and other larger particles that tend to settle out of the air are not considered air-borne. Use of personal protective equipment: disposable gloves and aprons and eye protection. Managing blood and body uids: spillages and collection and transport of specimens. Prevention of occupational exposure to infection and managing sharps injuries and blood splash incidents. Hepatitis A in children has low pathogenic- Preventing spread of infection: ity and low virulence. Measles has high standard precautions pathogenicity but low virulence, whereas rabies is both highly pathogenic and highly It is not always possible to identify people who virulent. The infectious dose is the number may spread infection to others, therefore stan- of organisms that are necessary to produce dard precautions to prevent the spread of in- infection in the host. The infectious dose fection must be followed at all times (see Table varies with the route of transmission and 1. Because of the vomiting enteric precautions should be fol- clinical spectrum of disease, cases actually lowed (see Table 1. People with subclinical disease are with three specific aspects of healthcare: nevertheless infectious and are called carriers. Empty bedpans and urinals into toilet bowl and then wash with disinfectant and rinse Education Emphasise personal hygiene and hygienic preparation and serving of food Children and adults in jobs likely to spread infection should stay away from school for 48 h after the diarrhoea has stopped Basic concepts in the epidemiology and control of infectious disease 9 Fig. A basic element of specialist health protec- Handwashing is the single most important tion knowledge and experience is needed and part of infection control. Hands should be washed completely understand fully local on-call before contact with patients, after any activ- procedures for the control of infectious dis- ity that contaminates the hands, after remov- eases. Outside of office prepare press releases and deal with the me- hours, this is not always the case, e.
Interleukin-12: a pro-inflammatory cytokine with immunoregulatory func- tions that bridge innate resistance and antigen specific adaptive immunity buy 100 mg januvia amex k9 diabetes symptoms. Treatment of refractory disseminated nontuberculous mycobacterial infection with interferon : a pre- liminary report purchase generic januvia canada diabetes in dogs exercise. Primary stimulation by dendritic cells induces antiviral proliferative and cytotoxic T cell responses in vitro order januvia without prescription diabetes diet for weight loss type 2. Failure or success in the restora- tion of virus-specific cytotoxic T lymphocte response defects by dendritic cells. Mechanisms of mouse spleen dendritic cell function in the generation of influenza-specific, cytolytic T lymphocytes. Morphology and phenotype of dendritic cells from peripheral blood and their productive and non-productive infection with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Three populations of cells with dendritic mor- phology exist in peripheral blood, only one of which is infectable with human immuno- deficiency virus type 1. Susceptibility of human peripheral blood dendritic cells to infec- tion by human immunodeficiency virus. Distinct cytokine profiles of neonatal natural killer T cells after expansion with subsets of dendritic cells. Plasmacytoid monocytes migrate to inflamed lymph nodes and produce large amounts of Type I interferon. Uptake of Leishmania major amastigotes results in activation and interleukin 12 release from murine skin-derived den- dritic cells: implications for the initiation of anti-Leishmania immunity. Immunity to Chlamydia trachomatis Dendritic Cells 113 mouse pneumonitis induced by vaccination with live organisms correlates with early granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor and interleukin-12 production and with dendritic cell-like maturation. The cytotoxic T lymphocyte response to multi- ple hepatitis B virus polymerase epitopes during and after acute viral hepatitis. Dendritic cell immunization breaks cyto- toxic T lymphocyte tolerance in hepatitis B virus transgenic mice. The role of dendritic cells in the induction and regula- tion of immunity to microbial infection. Treatment of visceral leishmaniasis with pentavalent antimony and interferon gamma. A mutation in the interferon- -receptor gene and sus- ceptibility to mycobacterial infection. Interaction of dendritic cells with skin endothe- lium: a new perspective on immunosurveillance. Cutting edge: differential regulation of chemokine receptors during dendritic cell maturation: a model for their trafficking properties. Selective recruitment of immature and mature dendritic cells by distinct chemokines expressed in different anatomic sites. A dendritic-cell-derived C-C chemokine that preferentially attracts nave T cells. Dendritic cells: unique leukocyte populations which control the primary immune response. Cutting edge: receptor-mediated endocyto- sis of heat shock proteins by professional antigen-presenting cells. Neutrophil granulocyte-committed cells can be driven to acquire dendritic cell characteristics. Distinct dendritic cell subsets differentially reg- ulate the class of immune response in vivo. Human T, B, natural killer, and dendritic cells arise from a common bone marrow progenitor cell subset. Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor pro- motes differentiation and survival of human peripheral blood dendritic cells in vitro. Vaccination of patients with B-cell lymphoma using autologous antigen-pulsed dendritic cells. Efficient presentation of soluble antigen by cultured human dendritic cells is maintained by granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor plus interleukin 4 and downregulated by tumor necrosis factor alpha. Therapy of murine tumors with tumor peptide-pulsed dendritic cells: dependence on T cells, B7 costimulation and T helper cell 1-associated cytokines. Murine dendritic cells loaded in vitro with soluble protein prime cytotoxic T lymphocytes against tumor antigen in vivo. Vaccination of melanoma patients with peptide- or tumor lysate-pulsed dendritic cells. Dramatic increase in the numbers of function- ally mature dendritic cells in Flt3 ligand-treated mice: multiple dendritic cell subpopula- tions identified. Altered peptide ligand vaccination with Flt3 lig- and expanded dendritic cells for tumor immunotherapy. A recombinant Listeria mono- cytogenes vaccine expressing a model tumor antigen protects mice against lethal tumor 116 Kundu-Raychaudhuri and Engleman challenge and causes regression of established tumors. Immunoregulation of murine myeloma cell growth and differentiation: a monoclonal model of B cell differ- entiation. Monoclonal anti- idiotype antibodies against the murine B cell lymphoma 38C13: characterization and use as probes for the biology of the tumor in vivo and in vitro. Systemic administration of interleukin 2 enhances the therapeutic efficacy of dendritic cell-based tumor vaccines. The molecu- lar weight of most cytokines ranges between 6 and 60 kD, and these proteins can be glycosylated or myristylated. Although their primary role is in the host-defense response, they can stimulate the growth and differentiation of a number of target cells, e. Because of the breadth of their activity, the cytokines have been characterized by investigators in different disciplines, with a resul- tant variety of names. The intent of this chapter is to provide some background on the biology of cytokines and to describe their role in the earlier stages of the immune response to infectious agents prior to the immune systems commitment to either a cellular or humoral response. Knowledge of their role in infections should help us understand the rationale for use of cytokines or cytokine antagonists as therapy for the specific infections dis- cussed in subsequent chapters. This grouping is based on some gross structural similarities in the receptors for the cytokines within the two groups. The last section provides a sketch of the activity of cytokines in the immune response to infections that are the focus of many of therapeutic interventions intended to modulate cytokine activity. Depending on the type of stimulation, a given cell can pro- duce different cytokines. Induction of cytokine production with measurable tissue or serum concentrations occurs rapidly when cells are stimulated by antigen or bacterial products. Because of the constant surveillance by the immune system, some unde- tectable to low concentrations of cytokine production is probably ongoing in order to maintain routine maintenance of immunity. They can affect both the cells that secrete them (autocrine signals) or cells in the nearby environment (paracrine signals).
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Wet mount of the Gardnerella vaginalis effective januvia 100 mg diabetes symptoms online test, There is debate about the importance of discharge reveals vaginal anaerobic sexual transmission buy januvia no prescription diabetes test wrong. In males generic januvia 100 mg on-line diabetes symptoms dog, infection is often asymptomatic but irritation and a rash on the glans penis may occur. Non-chlamydial Ureaplasma urealyticum and Mycoplasma Specic diagnostic tests for non-gonococcal hominis are causes of urethritis and pelvic these organisms are not urethritis inammatory disease. Granuloma inguinale Destructive ulcerating genital papules appear Biopsy of the edge of the Calymmatobacterium 112 weeks after exposure. Possible ulcer shows Donovan granulomatis,a sequelae are genital lymphoedema, urethral bodies on appropriate Gram-negative stricture. Lymphogranuloma Starts with a painless penile vesicle 14 weeks Diagnosis is made by venereum Types L-1, after exposure. This heals but is followed serology, culture of L-2 and L-3 of 12 weeks later by fever and regional aspirates or direct Chlamydia lymphadenopathy, which leads to uorescence of smears. A variable secondary infectious lesions by dark rash follows after 68 weeks, often with ground microscopy. Possible sequelae are fetal and neonatal infection, neurological and cardiovascular disease. Motile organisms may be Trichomonas vaginalis, Asymptomatic urethral infection or seen on unstained wet a agellated colonization common in males. Laboratory investigations to distinguish be- Differential diagnosis tween the different types of viral hepatitis and other liver infections are covered in the rele- The differential diagnosis of jaundice includes vant chapters. Inapreviouslywell patient with acute onset of jaundice, the most Prevention and control likely cause is viral hepatitis. No specific public health Physiological (in the neonate) measuresareneededfornon-infectiouscauses. Toxin causing liver damage For infectious causes, specific measures will Primary biliary cirrhosis usually be indicated, depending upon the Gallstones causal agent. Assume blood, body fluids and Biliary or pancreatic cancer (until 1 week after start of jaundice) stools are Genetic disorders infectious until cause known. Infection in the immunocompromised 43 Investigation of a cluster and the risk of infection in the immunocompro- response to an outbreak mised. For infec- Causes of immunosuppression tious cases, the response will depend upon the causal agent. Epidemiology Post-splenectomy or as a consequence of hyposplenism, patients are at risk of in- Organism and syndrome(s) fection from capsulate bacteria, particularly Infections with common organisms usually Streptococcus pneumoniae, Neisseria meningi- respond to routine treatment. Asplenicchildren cern is infection with antibiotic-resistant or under 5 years, especially those with sickle cell unusualorganismsthatmaynotberecognised. Most infections posed to healthcare facilities, and to courses of occur in the first 2 years following splenec- antimicrobials, and are therefore at increased tomy; however, the increased risk of dying of risk of infection with resistant organisms. Themajorpublichealthroleisinidentifying Splenectomized patients and those with and ensuring systems are in place to minimise functional hyposplenism should receive 44 Common topics (asplenia is not a contraindication to routine Prevention through managing the immunisation) the following: environment Pneumococcal immunisation. Patients should carry a card to alert health professionals to their risk of overwhelming in- Fungal infection and building work fection. Splenectomized patients developing Outbreaks of fungal infection have been as- infection despite measures must be given a sociated with building work occurring close systemic antibiotic and urgently admitted to tohealthcareareasthatimmunocompromised hospital. Consideration to relocating services should be made if major Prevention of infection in the building work is undertaken. Advising such patients requires detailed administration (this does not require school knowledge of the epidemiology of disease in withdrawal). Prevention through prophylaxis Pneumocystis (oral trimethoprim/sulpha- Laboratory diagnosis methoxazole) Malaria chemoprophylaxis A search for infection, including blood and Penicillin in hyposplenism urine cultures and a chest X-ray, will be Blood-borne viral infections 45 necessary as soon as an immunocompromised Control of an outbreak patientspikesafever. Opportunisticorganisms that do not cause disease in the immunocom- Rapid removal of any source. Human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis B and hepatitis C are the main blood-borne viruses of public health importance. Clusters of infection in the immunocompro- mised should be investigated with urgency. A Preventing exposure in the cluster suggests a group of vulnerable people health and social care workplace exposedtoacommonsource,e. Managing blood and Clean up spillages of blood immediately, and follow written workplace body uids: spillages policy. Cover spillage with chlorine-releasing granules to soak up the spillage or use paper towels and sodium hypochlorite (10,000 ppm available chlorine). Ensure specimens are transported in accordance with Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods Act 1999. Prevention of exposure Avoid puncture wounds, cuts and abrasions in the presence of blood. Clinical waste is dened in the Controlled Waste Regulations 1992 as waste that arises from the treatment of humans or animals and is capable of causing infection or other harm. Producers of waste should conduct a local risk assessment to determine the most appropriate storage, collection, transport and disposal arrangements for the waste. Guidelines (Environment Agency, Technical Guidance On Clinical Waste Management Facilities, July 2003) should be followed. If devices have to be cleaned manually this should be done away from clinical areas. The instructions of the device manufacturer should be followed including choice, use and compatibility of decontaminants and dismantling and re-assembly of instruments. Ensure that water used is of a suitable quality, at the correct temperature and avoid producing aerosols. Sterilisers should be correctly sited and maintained and used according to manufacturers specication. Adding one part bleach to nine parts cold water gives a solution for disinfecting blood and body uids (10,000 ppm). For general use, such as disinfecting work surfaces, a 1000 ppm solution of bleach is adequate (i. All dilutions become ineffective with time and should be freshly made up every day. Manage linen safely Blood-stained linen should not be sorted but should be placed in a water-soluble primary bag. Primary responsibility usu- tients open tissues to the blood of the health- ally rests with the occupational health service, care worker. Such procedures occur mainly in with out-of-hours cover provided by accident surgery, obstetrics and gynaecology, dentistry and emergency departments. Health Clearance for Serious Communicable The source patient should be asked to con- Diseases:NewHealthCareWorkers. Otherwise they can use a towel blood-borne viral infections orclothtopreventthemfromgettingbloodon to their skin. All persons found to be infected with a blood- Ifyourclothingissoiledwithbloodorother borne virus should be considered potentially body fluids, wash them using a pre-wash and infectious and should be counselled concern- hot washing machine cycle.
Clinical infectious diseases : an offcial publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America 2005 buy januvia 100 mg otc diabetes in dogs information, 40 (8) buy 100mg januvia overnight delivery diabetes insipidus in animals, 1173-80 discount januvia 100 mg visa diabetes insipidus nursing diagnosis. Clinical microbiology and infection : the offcial publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases 2004, 10 (6), 527-9. Bancroft also worked on leprosy and was the frst to describe the adult worm of Wuchereria bancrofti -- its bears his name and that of Wucherer. He suggested that lymphatic flaria might be transmitted by mosquitoes, an idea that was later championed by Patrick Manson, who is given credit for describing that portion of the worms life cycle. More than 350 million ically diverse group of vector-borne haemo- 8 people live within an area of transmission. Old and the New World, whereas the subge- transmitting leishmaniasis throughout the nus Viannia is only found in the New World. In the Eastern Hemisphere, there are sig- resident macrophages, dendritic cells, lymph nifcantly fewer species that infect humans: L. Differences at all the depending upon the species of leishmania above levels exist between the cutaneous and and the immune status of the host. This introductory chapter will summa- rize the biology and molecular biology of the entire group, with the tacit assumption that they all behave similarly in their intracellular environment and within their sand fy vec- tors. Exceptions will be presented whenever they relate to a disease process applicable only to that species. There are no commercially available vac- The parasite undergoes a complex series cines as of yet, but infection with many of the of developmental changes inside the gut tract species of leishmania results in permanent of the sand fy, and progresses to the fagel- immunity to reinfection with the same spe- lated metacyclic stage after about a week fol- 10 2 cies. The parasite frst attaches project will hasten the development of an to the wall of the gut tract by non-specifc effective, cheap, easy-to-administer vaccine hydrophobic interactions between the surface against the most dangerous forms of leish- of the parasites fagella and the insect stom- 18 maniasis. Attachment to other both animals and humans is an active area of regions of the insect intestinal tract later on 11 research. As it does so it injects saliva contain- The leptomonad stage locates to the anterior ing numerous well-characterized bioactive region of the gut and secretes a gel-like sub- components, many of which are peptides stance that blocks the digestive tract of the 12, 13 or proteins. One such protein, maxadi- sand fy, causing the infected insect to regur- lan (a potent vasodilator), is a 7 kDa peptide gitate its complement of infectious metacy- believed essential to the taking of a blood clic promastigotes into the hosts subcutane- 14 2 meal by the fy. The receptor for and thorax and is injected into the host along maxadilan is the pituitary adenylate cyclase- with the dipterans salivary secretions. Following maximally flled with blood and cannot regur- injection of the metacyclic promastigote stage gitate the excess, due to the inhibition of the there is a rapid infltration of neutrophils into 24 emptying refex by a parasite-specifc peptide the skin. The promastigotes, however, are that interacts with myosin to prevent contrac- quickly taken up by several types of tissue 17 25 tion of stomach muscle. Maxadilan, pro- chances for the sand fy to become infected duced by the parasite, induces negative effects and to remain so throughout the period that on host immune cell function, including inhi- the parasite needs (i. Introduction to Leishmania 25 cytes display abnormal maturation of the phagolysosome due to lipophosphoglycans interference with F-actin, an essential com- ponent of the process of fusion of lysosomes 33 with the phagocytic vacuole. It is at this point in the life cycle that differ- ences between species of leishmania become apparent. Those that cause only cutaneous lesions remain at the site throughout the infec- tion, while those that cause visceral or muco- cutaneous lesions manage to fnd their way to the appropriate site in the body. For example, dendritic cells increase 26 in number in the draining lymph nodes of taglandin E2 production. This all leads to a down regulation of Th1-type cytokines and a experimentally infected mice infected with L. The promastigotes induce the production of antibodies and become opso- tion, resulting in the clinical condition known nized. Alternatively, 29 they can be carried by the phagocytes to plement attaches to the parasite cell surface. The promastigotes are then able to attach to mucocutaneous junctions, or to the reticulo- red cells or platelets and become engulfed by endothelial tissues, resulting in mucocutane- 30 ous or visceral leishmaniasis, respectively. In contrast, reside within the glycosome, a specialized leishmania are able to avoid digestion and are free to differentiate into amastigotes to begin the intracellular phase of their life cycle due to their ability to inhibit phagolysosome matura- tion. Circulating mac- by macrophages, employing cysteine prote- 43 rophages in blood-harboring amastigotes can ase B. Replication of amastigotes is dependent Virulence factors and pathogenesis upon host cyclophillins, since division is 4546 The cell and molecular biology of Leish- inhibited by cyclosporine A. The following summary of pathogenic attracts macrophages to the site of infection. Introduction to Leishmania 27 response that leads to a hyper-infammatory entrance into the macrophage. To further complicate the clinical spectrum The cutaneous forms typically induce well- of diseases caused by leishmania, one has defned Th1 responses, which are T cell-medi- to be reminded of the fact that Leishmania ated, and play a critical role in controlling and spp. Permanent have, within the last 165 million years, immunity to reinfection with cutaneous leish- begun to diverge evolutionarily due maniasis causing organisms is the rule, and to continental drift. Antibodies appear to play no the biology of leishmania, see McMahon- 62 role in immunity to cutaneous leishmani- Pratt and Alexander. A metalloenzyme capable of protecting liposome-encapsulated proteins from phagolysosomal degradation by macrophages. Cutaneous Leishmaniasis The principal vector species are Lutzomyia olmeca olmeca, Lu. Their vectors include sand fies of the following species; Phlebotomous papatasi, P. At least 15 species of leish- mania in the New World cause similar types of disease: Leishmania (Leishmania) amazo- nensis, L. Cutaneous Leishmania 33 Estimates are diffcult to come by due to Life Cycle the absence of public health surveillance in these regions, but it is believed that the num- Infection begins with the bite of an bers could be in the hundreds of thousands. The South America, and a Cuban diaspora through promastigotes transform into the amastigote 6, 7 the Darien jungle of Panama. Eventu- Historical Information ally, a large, painless craterform ulcer forms 14 Sand as the result of extensive cell death. In 1921, Edouard Sergent The lesion progresses from a painless nodule, and Etienne Sergent demonstrated that sand measuring approximately 1 cm in diameter, fies were the vectors responsible for trans- into a much larger one by the formation of mitting leishmania to humans; one species satellite papules (Fig. Organisms are found only in the living Oriental sore is common among people tissue at the raised margin, regardless of the living in endemic areas of the Middle East, age of the lesion (Fig. A rudimentary kind of immunization referred to as leishmaniza- tion was practiced in the Middle East, where it was known that infection results in perma- 11 nent immunity to reinfection. Uninfected individuals were deliberately inoculated in areas other than the face with scrapings con- taining organisms from the margins of active lesions. Regardless of which species causes the lesion, it may vary in size and shape, some- times confounding even the most experi- enced clinician. Species identifcation can be critical in determining whether the infecting species has the potential to progress 38 to mucocutaneous disease. The leishmaniasis skin test is used in 31 certain parts of the world and involves inject- group of infectious agents.
