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Although Granulocytic Leukemia: Granulocytic leukemia is the evidence occasionally appears supportive of the unregulated proliferation of granulocytes cheap cialis professional 20 mg fast delivery erectile dysfunction daily pill. In erythremic myelosis buy generic cialis professional pills erectile dysfunction and diabetes type 1, marked extramedullary chickens discount cialis professional uk erectile dysfunction medication for high blood pressure, this disease (myeloblastosis) is caused by erythropoiesis cannot be excluded. In comparison to retrovirus infection; the etiology in captive and free- mammalian erythrocytes, avian erythrocytes have a ranging birds has not been identified. Following acute and ongoing hemorrhage, intense extramedullary Granulocytic leukemia in birds is sometimes associ- erythropoiesis could occur, especially with concur- ated with the formation of sarcomatous masses rent recycling of iron from internal hemorrhage. These lesions are analogous to Therefore, the conure bleeding syndrome will require chloromas in mammals. More commonly, tissue infil- further hematologic characterization before it can be tration by neoplastic granulocytes results in hepa- classified absolutely as erythremic myelosis. The presence of lipid in cells and the background of the smears may be indirectly demonstrated by new methylene blue staining (fat- and aqueous-based stains do not mix). Amazon parrot (Amazona autum- plasia in the budgerigar (Melopsit- tumors in Japanese quail. Avian Dis 30:241-244, the exocrine pancreas in pet, exotic, Am Vet Med Assoc 181:1396-1398, 6. Vet Rec 106:10-12, noma of the pharyngeal cavity in a erakis isolonche in the ceca of gallina- types of tumors in mammals and 1980. Bauck L: Pituitary neoplastic disease and cloacal prolapse in an orange- 35:321-327, 1991. Hochleithner M: Cystadenoma in an cell lines and transplantable tu- Pathol 13:98-103, 1976. Four cases of neoplasia in captive tomas in two domestic ducks (Anas undulatus): Clinical, pathomor- 18. Burstein H, et al: Viral aetiology of exercise: Abdominal mass in a male Neoplasia in free-flying ruffed grouse 93. Paul-Murphy J, et al: Malignant lym- of lipomatous growths in a hypothy- tologic study of avian osteopetrotic 1991, pp 583-596. J Am Vet Med Assoc neoplasms in non-domesticated Glioblastoma multiforme in a budg- 32:163-165, 1988. Spontaneous chromo- (Diagnosis: metastatic ovarian carci- the canary (Serinus canarius). Avian Dis 27:549-555, and a grey-cheeked parakeet (Broto- Med Assoc 191:451-452, 1987. However, the small size of the eye in C H A P T E R I companion birds and the striated sphincter muscle of the avian iris necessitate modified proce- dures to visualize the posterior segment of the eye. The key to effective evalu- ation is to develop a logical, consistent use of the 26 same pattern of examination for each eye. Before a bird is agitated by restraint, the eyes should be evaluated from a distance, noting whether the bird will fixate on moving objects, whether both pu- pils are the same size and whether there are any obvious abnormalities in the periorbital area (Figure 26. The detailed examination requires adequate restraint, and a darkened room will calm the bird and improve the illumination provided by a focal light source. Ocular discharge, conjunctival hyperemia or periorbital swelling can be an indication of a pri- mary ocular disorder or may occur secondary to si- David Williams nusitis or facial dermatitis (see Chapter 24). Some larger Psittaciformes may inflate a portion of their periorbital sinus as an aggressive gesture, creating a transient swelling in the periorbital region (Color 26. Collapse of the anterior chamber may occur in an otherwise normal eye following a period of head restraint or lateral recumbency during anes- thesia. Examination of the anterior segment can be per- formed with a bright pen light, a binocular loupe, an operating microscope, an ophthalmoscope set on +20 diopters or, ideally, a slit lamp (Figure 26. Key features to evaluate are the clarity of the cornea, the aqueous, the lens and the color and vascularization of the iris. Aqueous flare, as seen in uveitis, can be detected by looking for scattering of a slit light beam that is passing through the anterior chamber (Colors 26. A 28 diopter lens is particularly useful but results in an inverted image that requires some practice to interpret (courtesy of David Willaims). The most useful regime in raptors has been found to be vecuronium bromide solution (4 mg/ml) topically every five minutes for fifteen minutes (see Chapter 18). A 28 or 40 dioptre lens is useful to obtain a good field of view in the small avian eye. The lamp can also be used to facilitate evaluation slit-lamp provides excellent visualization of a large of oral and dermatologic lesions (courtesy of David Williams). Further testing can be used to confirm or refute the Retinal examination is difficult in many birds be- presence of suspicious lesions detected by gross ob- cause of the small size of the eye and the lack of servation. Corneal ulcerations can be detected by response of the avian iris to conventional parasym- staining with fluorescein dye. Mydriasis can be accom- Tests can be used on birds, although normal data for plished by intracemeral injection of d-tubocurarine psittacine birds have not been published. Conven- or by the frequent use of a freshly prepared topical 3 tional 6 mm-wide Schirmer tear test filter paper mg/ml solution of crystalline d-tubocurarine in strips have been found to be difficult to insert in the 0. The difference in tear production between species is presumably related to the size of the orbit and lacri- An understanding of the anatomy of the avian eye mal gland tissue. A normal bird of the same species, As an overview, the avian eyelids are mobile, the ideally an enclosure mate, can also be used for com- lower more so than the upper. The simple indentation Schiotz lacrimal gland at the base of the nictitating mem- tonometer cannot be used in smaller birds because of brane (Figure 26. The nictitating membrane ac- its large footplate, which covers the cornea and sclera tively moves over the cornea during blinking and in in all but the largest avian species. It has an unusual portable Tonopen applanation tonometer is ideal for muscular arrangement; it is drawn across the eye by use in birds. One study indicates that this instru- the pyramidal muscle originating in the posterior ment provided reproducible readings in birds with sclera and loops over the optic nerve through a sling corneal diameters over 9 mm. A key point in the nique for sample collection should be used to increase anatomy of the avian orbit is the close proximity of the validity of the sample. The best diagnostic bacterio- the tightly packed orbit with the infraorbital diver- logic samples can be obtained by inserting a sterile ticulum of the infraorbital sinus (Figure 26. Si- swab moistened in transport medium into the upper nusitis and enlargement of this diverticulum will conjunctival fornix and rubbing it from side to side two or three times. The upper fornix is the preferred site for collecting culture samples because there is less con- tamination from environmental organisms than in the lower fornix. Conjunctival scrapings can be stained with a modified Wright’s stain for general cytology. A Giemsa stain can be used to detect chlamydial elemen- tary bodies (see Chapters 10, 34). Immature and signs of periorbital swelling, conjunctivitis and cockatoos of both genders have black irides.
Syndromes
Alcohol also has marked diuretic effects and order 20 mg cialis professional free shipping erectile dysfunction gene therapy, when combined with the ingestion of large quantities of fluid (particularly in beer and lager drinking) buy generic cialis professional 20 mg on-line erectile dysfunction weight loss, it may result in electrolyte disturbances discount cialis professional 20 mg line erectile dysfunction pills new, particularly hyponatremia. The chronic effects of alcohol involve many of the internal organs; alco- holic cardiomyopathy, hepatic steatosis, and cirrhosis are the most common, and all can lead to sudden death. Alcohol may also be a major factor in causing death by predisposing the individual to accidental trauma and by obscuring the effects of that trauma. This is particularly the case in head injuries when the changes in the level of consciousness are attributed to the effects of alcohol rather than an identified or unidentified head injury. Alcohol is also a gastric irritant and may precipitate vomiting when taken in excess. This, combined with the effects of decreased consciousness and the reduced laryngeal reflexes associated with intoxication may result in a signifi- cantly increased risk of aspiration of vomit into the airways and death. These deaths are the result of the intoxicated individual moving into or being placed or left in a position that impedes respiration either by occlusion 338 Shepherd of the external respiratory orifices or the internal airways (particularly the larynx) or restricts the free movement of the chest wall. These positions may result from lying face down on a bed, marked extension or flexion of the neck, or lying across an edge with the head down. Deaths resulting from impairment of respiration in this manner classically result in profound asphyxial changes involving the upper body, and these deaths are ascribed to postural asphyxia. Given the speed with which an individual under the influence of alcohol can die from either the aspiration of vomit or postural asphyxia, it is doubtful if a police station cell is the correct environment for his or her recovery from intoxication. Drugs Drug use is now so ubiquitous in Western society that any examination of a potential detainee by a forensic physician must include a careful evaluation of drug use whether in the past or recently. The skill of the forensic physician will undoubtedly be stretched to the full in the evaluation of the history given, and this is discussed fully in Chapter 10. The failure to identify a drug abuser who then suffers from withdrawal while in custody is just as potentially life-threat- ening as the failure to continue a detainee’s prescribed medication. In terms of deaths in custody, all drug use, whether social, abusive, or therapeutic, is relevant (13), and the possibility that a detainee may have abused just one drug or a combination of drugs with or without alcohol before death must be positively excluded. Some laboratories will also examine samples of bile and/ or liver to detect evidence of previous drug abuse. The management of acute drug intoxication is a matter of clinical judg- ment, but with adequate medical care, it is unlikely that, except in exceptional circumstances, drug intoxication alone will to lead to sudden death in custody. Baton Blows Blows from a baton are usually easily identified because forceful blows produce the classic “tram line”-type injuries on the skin. A linear object will, almost by definition, have two such margins, which run Deaths in Custody 339 parallel, and a blow from such an object results in two linear parallel bruises; hence, the terminology “tram line. The deeper injuries tend to reflect the use of greater force, but it is not possible to correlate with any degree of certainty the amount of force needed to cause a particular injury in any individual. It is essential for both the forensic physician who examines a living vic- tim of a baton blow to the head (or from any other cause) and the pathologist who performs a postmortem examination to remember that significant cere- bral trauma can be caused in the absence of obvious external trauma or skull fractures, and it would be prudent to assess anyone who has received or com- plains of receiving a head injury from a baton or from any other cause and to consider carefully if referral to hospital for a full neurological assessment is advisable. Neck Holds Pressure on and around the neck is well-known to be a potentially lethal action (14). Death can be caused after compression of the neck by any one of four mechanisms or by any combination of two or more of the following: • Airway obstruction by direct compression of the larynx or trachea or by the pres- sure on the neck raising the larynx upward and causing the superior aspect of the pharynx to be occluded by the tongue base. This can be achieved by pressure of a forearm across the front of the neck, sometimes called the “choke hold. The low pressure in the venous system and the thin yielding nature of the vein walls make venous occlusion more easily achieved than arterial occlusion; however, the large reserve capacity of the venous system makes it unlikely that rapid death would result even if complete occlusion was achieved, unless some other factor supervened. This is harder to achieve than venous occlusion because of the higher pressure in the arterial system and the thick- ness of the arterial walls; however, the effects of occlusion will become apparent much quicker. Saukko and Knight (14) record that occlusion of the carotid circula- tion for 4 min or more may result in brain damage, and Reay et al. A sleeper hold is applied when the upper arm compresses one side of the neck and the forearm the other and the larynx rests in the “V” formed by the elbow. Vagal stimulation 340 Shepherd results in bradycardia, which may progress to asystole or, in some cases, imme- diate asystole. Conversely, Kowai (17) concluded that the use of the choke hold could take between 10 and 20 s to cause unconsciousness, and, therefore, it was safe. Clearly, they did not experience the vagal effects of this hold in their experiments. Neck holds are commonly used in many forms of wrestling or martial arts, and in these situations, they are seldom associated with fatalities, possi- bly because of the ability of the person held to indicate his or her willingness to submit to a referee and so cause the hold to be released. No such author- ity is present during a restraint by police; perhaps this is why fatalities are recorded in this situation. In the United Kingdom, the use of neck holds by police during restraint is specifically prohibited and officers are warned dur- ing their training of the potentially fatal effects of applying any pressure to the neck. The pathological examination of deaths associated with compression of the neck requires a detailed and careful dissection of the neck structures (18). The finding of injuries to the muscular, cartilaginous, vascular, or neural com- ponents of the neck must be interpreted in the light of the restraint events, the actions of the restrainers, and the subsequent resuscitation, if any. Pressure on the neck to maintain an airway after cardiac or respiratory arrest may result in bruising, which could be confused with pressure before or, indeed, causing that arrest. Therapeutic insertion of cannulae during active resuscitation by paramedics or in the hospital commonly leads to marked hemorrhage in the neck that, although it is unlikely to be confused with bruising caused by a neck hold, may mask any bruising that was present. Pressure on the neck is not, of course, the only mechanism whereby an individual may suffer anoxia or asphyxiation. Any action that partially or completely occludes the mouth and/or the nose will result in difficulty in breathing and may result in asphyxiation. The features of these other causes of asphyxiation, traumatic or restraint asphyxia, are discussed in Subhead- ing 11. Homicide There have been numerous cases where individuals have been murdered in the cell by another inmate. Such deaths are most commonly associated with blunt trauma, but strangulation, stabbing, and other methods may be employed Deaths in Custody 341 if suitable weapons are available. It is also evident that individuals have been deliberately assaulted and killed by police officers during arrest and detention. The forensic physician should always be aware of the possibility that police may have used excessive force or that deliberately homicidal injuries may have been inflicted. If injuries are present on any individual in their care, these injuries must be carefully documented and, if they are beyond that which the physician considers reasonable in the circumstances, their concerns should be expressed immediately to a senior officer, to a legal representative of the detainee, and an official complaints procedure. The physician also has the duty to ensure that no further harm comes to that person. The methods used are variable but reflect the materials available to the indi- vidual at that time. Hanging To effect a hanging suicide, the individual must have two things: an object that can be made into a noose and a point on which to tie it. In addition, the individual must be able to place his or her body so that his or her body weight can be used to apply pressure to the neck via the noose. The materials and objects that can be made into a noose are many and vary from the obvious (ties, belts, shoelaces, etc) to the unusual (underwear, shirts, etc). To attempt to reduce the possibility of hanging suicides many police station cells have been redesigned and attachment points for the noose (pipes, bars, etc) have been removed or covered. However, the lack of these obvious points did not deter some individuals who placed the bed on end and used the upper end as the fixing point.
Syndromes
There is absolutely no argument from anyone in the medical community that these recommendations should constitute the first step in the treatment of chronic constipation generic 20 mg cialis professional amex impotence losartan potassium. High levels of dietary fiber increase both the frequency and the quantity of bowel movements generic cialis professional 20mg with amex diabetic erectile dysfunction icd 9 code, decrease the transit time of stools order cialis professional online pills erectile dysfunction trimix, decrease the absorption of toxins from the stool, and appear to be a preventive factor in several diseases. However, higher amounts may be optimal for health, as the diet humans evolved with contained approximately 100 g fiber per day. The typical daily recommendation for bran is 1/2 cup of bran cereal, increasing over several weeks to 11/2 cups. They can be composed of natural soluble fiber derived from psyllium seed, kelp, agar, pectin, and plant gums such as karaya and guar, or they can be purified semisynthetic polysaccharides such as methylcellulose and carboxymethyl cellulose sodium. Psyllium-containing laxatives are the most popular and usually the most effective. Psyllium is derived from the seed of the plant Plantago ovago, native to Iran and India. The laxative properties of psyllium are due to the swelling of the husk when it comes in contact with water. The resulting bulk stimulates a reflex contraction of the walls of the bowel, followed by emptying. Bulk-forming fiber supplements such as psyllium are the laxatives that approximate most closely the natural mechanism that promotes a bowel movement. The number of complete spontaneous bowel movements per week and stool consistency scores improved significantly with prunes when compared with psyllium. However, straining and global constipation symptoms did not differ significantly between treatments. Constipation in Children Constipation in children usually occurs at three distinct points in time: in infancy, after starting formula or processed foods; during toilet training in toddlerhood; and soon after starting school (e. There are many factors to consider, but just as with adults, increasing fiber content usually produces the desired result. In addition, for children with a history of constipation, the first thing we recommend is eliminating milk and other dairy products from the diet. It is well accepted that cow’s milk intolerance (either allergy or lactose intolerance) can produce diarrhea. What is not as well known is that cow’s milk intolerance can also lead to constipation and is a major cause of childhood constipation. Children with constipation who respond to milk elimination also experience a decreased frequency of allergy symptoms, including runny nose, eczema, and asthma. Our recommendation is that if a child is constipated, start by eliminating cow’s milk and other dairy products while increasing the intake of high-fiber foods, especially pears, apples, and other whole fruit. Definitely avoid mineral oil as well as stimulant laxatives unless absolutely necessary. In general, stimulant laxatives, even natural ones such as cascara sagrada (Rhamnus purshiana) or senna (Cassia senna) should not be used long-term. Week one: Every night before bed take a stimulant laxative containing either cascara or senna. Take the lowest amount necessary to reliably ensure a bowel movement every morning. In addition to providing bulk and decreasing the transit time of fecal matter, prunes’ insoluble fiber also provides food for the “friendly” bacteria in the large intestine. When these helpful bacteria ferment prunes’ insoluble fiber, they produce a short-chain fatty acid called butyric acid, which serves as the primary fuel for the cells of the large intestine and helps maintain a healthy colon. These helpful bacteria also create two other short-chain fatty acids, proprionic acid and acetic acid, which are used as fuel by the cells of the liver and muscles. Prunes contain large amounts of phenolic compounds (184 mg/100 g), mainly as neochlorogenic and chlorogenic acids. Eating five prunes or drinking 4 fl oz prune juice is all that is required to help relieve constipation in many sufferers. Senna relieves constipation by increasing the strength of contraction of the intestinal muscles. Like other stimulant laxatives, it should be limited to occasional use, as long-term use of senna can lead to dependence. Stimulant laxatives, such as senna, are likely to cause abdominal cramping, nausea, and increased mucus secretion. Less common side effects are associated with chronic use and are usually related to loss of potassium and other electrolytes (e. Call your doctor right away if you have any of these side effects: a sudden change in bowel habits that persists over a period of two weeks, rectal bleeding, or failure to have a bowel movement after use. Excessive laxative use or inadequate fluid intake may lead to significant fluid and electrolyte imbalance. A benign blackish-brown pigmentation of the lining of the colon (pseudomelanosis coli) may occur with prolonged use (at least four months) of senna, owing to the anthraquinones it contains. Senna and other stimulant laxatives may decrease the absorption of drugs that pass through the gastrointestinal tract. If you are currently taking an oral medication, talk to your pharmacist or doctor before self-medicating with senna. Senna may potentiate the action of digoxin and other heart medications, owing to potassium depletion. The use of senna with thiazide diuretics and corticosteroids may further decrease potassium levels. Drink six to eight glasses of liquid per day while taking senna or any other laxative. In most cases constipation is not serious and responds quickly to dietary and supplement strategies. Bran cereal can be helpful; start with 1/2 cup daily, increasing over several weeks to 11/2 cups. Caucasians have the disease two to five times more often than African-Americans or Asian-Americans, and those with a Jewish heritage have a three- to sixfold higher incidence than non-Jews. In approximately 40% of cases, however, the inflammatory lesions (granulomas) are either poorly developed or totally absent. The original description in 1932 by Crohn and colleagues localized the disease to segments in the ileum, the terminal portion of the small intestine. However, it is now known that the same granulomatous process may involve the mucosa of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, duodenum, jejunum, and colon. Features Shared by Crohn’s Disease and Ulcerative Colitis • The colon is frequently involved in Crohn’s disease and is invariably involved in ulcerative colitis. Thus, both Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis may cause changes in the small intestine. The ability of microbes to coexist within the human intestinal tract involves host genetic factors, barrier function, and immune function, as well as the number and type of health-promoting gut bacteria. Since this time there has been a rapid climb in incidence in developed countries, particularly the United States, and in countries that previously had virtually no reported cases. The problem may be that the infectious agent is a component of the normal intestinal flora that suddenly produces immune-stimulatory toxins or becomes invasive as a direct result of sublethal doses of antibiotics.
