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Vaccine failure No vaccine offers 100% protection and a small proportion of individuals get infected despite vaccination generic aldactone 25mg visa blood pressure kits for nurses. Vaccines can fail in two main ways – known as primary or secondary vaccine failures discount aldactone 100 mg visa toprol xl arrhythmia. Primary failure occurs when an individual fails to make an initial immunological response to the vaccine order aldactone 25 mg blood pressure medication and juice. The risk of measles in such children is reduced by offering an additional dose of vaccine, usually before school entry. Secondary failure occurs when an individual responds initially but then protection wanes over time. Individuals who acquire infection despite vaccination may have a modified, milder form of disease and are less likely to suffer serious complications than those who have never been vaccinated. An example of secondary vaccine failure is pertussis vaccine, when protection against whooping cough after three doses is initially high but declines as a child gets older. Population immunity the primary aim of vaccination is to protect the individual who receives the vaccine. Vaccinated individuals are also less likely to be a source of infection to others. This reduces the risk of unvaccinated individuals being exposed to 4 Immunity and how vaccines work infection. This means that individuals who cannot be vaccinated will still benefit from the routine vaccination programme. For example, babies below the age of two months, who are too young to be immunised, are at greatest risk of dying if they catch whooping cough. Such babies are protected from whooping cough because older siblings and other children have been routinely immunised as part of the childhood programme. When vaccine coverage is high enough to induce high levels of population immunity, infections may even be eliminated from the country, e. But if high vaccination coverage were not maintained, it would be possible for the disease to return. Vaccination against smallpox enabled the infection to be declared eradicated from the world in 1980. Immunoglobulins Passive immunity can be provided by the injection of human immunoglobulin which contains antibodies to the target infection and temporarily increases an individual’s antibody level to that specific infection. Specific immunoglobulins are available for tetanus, hepatitis B, rabies and varicella zoster. Each specific immunoglobulin contains antibodies against the target infection at a higher titre than that present in normal immunoglobulin. Specific immunoglobulins are obtained from the pooled blood of donors who: are convalescing from the target infectious disease, or have been recently immunised with the relevant vaccine, or are found on screening to have sufficiently high antibody titres. Recommendations for the use of normal and specific immunoglobulins are given in the relevant chapters. The guidance in this chapter is based both on the current legal position and the standards expected of health professionals by their regulatory bodies. Further legal developments may occur after this guidance has been issued and health professionals should remember their duty to keep themselves informed of any such developments that may have a bearing on their area of practice. There is no legal requirement for consent to immunisation to be in writing and a signature on a consent form is not conclusive proof that consent has been given, but serves to record the decision and the discussions that have taken place with the patient or the person giving consent on a child’s behalf. Consent obtained before the occasion upon which a child is brought for immunisation is only an agreement for the child to be included in the immunisation programme and does not mean that consent is in place for each future immunisation. The individual must be informed about the process, benefits and risks of immunisation and be able to communicate their decision. Information given should be relevant to the individual patient, properly explained and questions should be answered fully. If there is new information between the time consent was given and when the immunisation is offered, it may be necessary to inform the patient and for them to re-confirm their consent. Individuals, or those giving consent on their behalf, must be given enough information to enable them to make a decision before they can give consent. This should include information about the process, benefits and risks of the immunisation(s). This information is based on the current scientific evidence and clinical advice and will have been tested on relevant population groups. Written or verbal information should be available in a form that can be easily understood by the individual who will be giving the consent. Where English is not the first language, translations and properly recognised interpreters should be used. Consent is valid if the individual, or person providing consent, is offered as much information as they reasonably need to make their decision, and in a form that they can understand. In line with current data protection and Caldicott guidance, individuals should also be informed about how data on immunisation will be stored, who will be able to access that information and how that data may be used. It is important to emphasise that such information is used to monitor the safety and efficacy of the current vaccination programmes. The health professional providing the immunisation should ensure that consent is in place. It is good practice to check that the person still consents to your providing each immunisation before it is given. The Nursing and Midwifery Council’s Code of Professional Conduct: standards for conduct, performance and ethics paragraph 1. This means that you are answerable for your actions and omissions, regardless of advice or directions from another professional. Under English law, no one is able to give consent on behalf of an adult unable to give consent for examination or treatment him or herself. The Mental Capacity Act 2005 is due to come into force in 2007 and sets out how treatment decisions should be made for people of 16 years of age or older who do not have the capacity to make such decisions (more information will be available at www. If an adult has refused immunisation before losing the capacity to make a decision, this decision will be legally binding, provided that it remains valid and applicable to the circumstances. If an adult has not clearly refused the treatment before losing the capacity to make such a decision, you will be able to treat an adult who is unable to consent if the treatment would be in their best interests, e. This decision would be made by the patient’s doctor in discussion with those close to the patient. Where this person brings the child in response to an invitation for immunisation and, following an appropriate consultation, presents the child for that immunisation, these actions may be considered evidence of consent. A father also has parental responsibility if he was married to the mother when the child was born, or if he subsequently married her. An unmarried father may also acquire parental responsibility by: Parental Responsibility Order granted by the court Residence Order granted by the court. This will give the person with the residence order parental responsibility as well as those of the child’s parents which have parental responsibility. More than one person can have parental responsibility in more than just this case. For example, two parents or the local authority and a parent where there is a care order.
Diseases
The Nutrition Module is studied in parallel with a Practical Skills Training Programme at health facilities in your locality aldactone 25mg with visa arrhythmia quiz. This blended approach to learning will ensure that you achieve all the theoretical and practical competencies required to give effective nutritional care and support in your community purchase aldactone now blood pressure bulb replacement. The Nutrition Module has 13 study sessions buy aldactone 25mg with visa blood pressure normal value, starting with the basics of nutrition and fnishing with a session on the Nutrition Information System in Ethiopia. The frst three Study Sessions cover food, diet and nutrition; nutrients and their food sources (in Ethiopia); and nutritional requirements throughout the human lifecycle. Study Session 4 deals with infant and young child feeding in the context of our country. Following this, you will learn different methods of nutritional assessment (Study Session 5) both at individual and community level. In Study Sessions 6 and 7, the nutritional problems that are of public health importance in Ethiopia are elaborated; followed by household food security (Study Session 8). Study Sessions 9 and 10 cover the treatment and control of the main nutritional problems of Ethiopia, including severe micronutrient malnutrition. In Study Session 11 you will learn about education and how to counsel people in your community to prevent or address nutrition problems. Finally, in Study Session 13 you look at the Nutrition Information System in Ethiopia and your role in collecting data that helps to inform decision- making in relation to nutrition programmes and other interventions in Ethiopia. You will learn what is meant by food and diet as well as the meaning of nutrition and nutrients in general. Estimates of the eligible population for nutritional care and support are provided, using calculations from the Ethiopian census data. Finally, the relationship between health, nutrition and development is described, linking them with the Millennium Development Goals. The overall purpose of this session is to teach you some of the basics about nutrition that you will be able to use in your work and will inform your learning throughout the whole of the Module. Learning Outcomes for Study Session 1 When you have studied this session, you should be able to: 1. To have adequate and regular weight gain, children need enough good-quality food to meet their nutritional requirements, they need to stay healthy and they need sufficient care from their families and communities. Your role as a Health Extension Practitioner is, therefore, key in attaining these goals. An undernourished child struggles to withstand an attack of pneumonia, diarrhoea or other illness — and illness often prevails. The children who survive may become locked in a cycle of recurring illness and slow growth, diminishing their physical health, irreversibly damaging their development and their cognitive abilities, and impairing their capacities as adults. If a child suffers from diarrhoea — due to a lack of clean water or adequate sanitation, or because of poor hygiene practices — it will drain nutrients from his or her body. Chronic undernutrition (meaning low height for age, also known as stunting) in early childhood also results in diminished mental and physical development, which puts children at a disadvantage for the rest of their lives. They may perform poorly in school, and as adults they may be less productive, earn less and face a higher risk of disease than adults who were not undernourished as children. For girls, chronic undernutrition in early life, either before birth or during early childhood, can later lead to their babies being born with low birth weight, which can again lead to undernutrition as these babies grow older. Thus a vicious cycle of undernutrition repeats itself, generation after generation. Based on the latest available data, in the developing world, the number of children under five years old who are stunted is close to 200 million, while the number of children under five who are underweight is about 130 million. Like other undernourished children, they may be susceptible to infectious disease and death, and as adults they may face a higher risk of chronic illness such as heart disease and diabetes. In turn, the health of the mother is linked to the status a woman has in the society in which she lives. In many developing countries, the low status of women is considered to be one of the primary reasons for undernutrition across the life cycle. There is a marked decrease in the number of Ethiopian households that consume iodised salt compared with a decade ago, leading to increased iodine deficiency disorder. The greatest functional consequences of malnutrition for children are increased risk of illness, and death; and for those who survive, mental impairment and reduced capacity to produce and contribute to the economy of the country. These consequences of malnutrition are often not fully appreciated because they are hidden. Beyond the individual human suffering, malnutrition reduces mental Malnutrition impacts on health, development and, thus, will mean slower learning throughout life. Malnutrition also reduces work productivity, as stunted, less educated and mentally impaired adults are less productive. It has been estimated that the annual value of the loss in productivity that can be attributed to child stunting is 2. Moreover, iodine deficiency, which results in irreversible 3 impairment of intellectual capacities, has been estimated to cost the Ethiopian economy 1. When aggregated, the effects on illness, education and productivity have an enormous impact on the economic growth and poverty reduction effort of the country. Given the benefits of reducing the burden of malnutrition in Ethiopia, the government efforts to address malnutrition in a comprehensive approach can be easily justified. For those who survive, many have mental impairment and reduced capacity to produce and contribute to the economy. Malnutrition reduces mental development and, thus, will mean slower learning throughout life. For example, time is lost to economic activities in looking after sick children and days are lost from school. This will have a negative impact on economic growth and poverty reduction efforts of developing countries. The most critical time for preventing malnutrition is during pregnancy and the first two years of a child’s life. You will look at how you can plan nutritional support for mothers and babies in your community in the next section. According to the 2007 population statistics of Ethiopia, the number of children under two years is calculated as 8% of the total population, while the number of children under five years of age is 14. The Ethiopian population statistics also indicate that the number of pregnant women is 4% of the general population. This percentage is used to estimate the number of pregnant and lactating mothers in a given community. The percentages will vary to some extent between communities, but they can be used to estimate numbers with reasonable accuracy. Make a note of your answers in your Study Diary to share with your Tutor at your Study Support Meeting. Answer We do not know the numbers of your kebele but if you use the example above to help you do your calculation, you will now be able to plan nutrition care and support for children and mothers in the community. It includes all foods and drinks acceptable for that particular society, culture or religion. As we grow up, our experience and learning help us to change some of these food habits.
The spectrum of latent tuberculosis: rethinking the biology and intervention strategies buy aldactone 25mg amex pulse pressure 19. The role of the granuloma in expansion and dissemination of early tuberculous infection purchase aldactone 100 mg free shipping hypertension zinc. Biomarkers and diagnostics for tuberculosis: progress 25mg aldactone sale blood pressure kiosk locations, needs, and translation into practice. Ensuring the involvement of children in the evaluation of new tuberculosis treatment regimens. Multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis: a threat to global control of tuberculosis. New drugs and new regimens for the treatment of tuberculosis: review of the drug development pipeline and implications for national programmes. Guidelines for the programmatic management of drug-resistant tuberculosis, Emergency Update 2008. Integration of operational research into National Tuberculosis Control Programmes. Capacity building for international tuberculosis control through operations research training. Scale-up of services and research priorities for diagnosis, management, and control of tuberculosis: a call to action. Epidem iology • A ge –any (peak age 3 yrs) • C urrentasth m a prevalence is h igh eram ong – ch ildren th anadults – boys th angirls(2:1) – wom en th an m en – C h ildren grow outofth eirasth m a • A sth m a m orbidity and m ortality is h igh eram ong – A fricanA m ericans th an C aucasians Source: M M W R 2007;56(N o. I dI deennttiiffyy aanndd ReRedducucee E x poE x possururee ttoo R iR isskk F aF accttoorrss 33.. Patient blow s dow n a w ide bore tube at the end of w hich is a w histle, on the side is a hole w ith adjustable knob. A s subject blow s → w histle blow s, leak hole is gradually increased till the intensity of w histle disappears. Preoperative assessm ent of thoracotom y patients M easuring R V,F R C It can be m easured by – nitrogen w ashout technique – H elium dilution m ethod – Body plethysm ography N 2 W ash outT ech nique • the patient breathes 100% oxygen, and all the nitrogen in the lungs is w ashed out. H elium Dilution tech nique • Pt breathes in and out from a reservoir w ith know n volum e of gas containing trace of helium. B ody P leth ysm ograph y • Plethysm ography (derived from greek w ord m eaning enlargem ent). Tum ors of trachea or m ain bronchus • D uring forced expiration – high pleural pressure – increased intrathoracic pressure ‐ decreases airw ay diam eter. Preoperative assessm ent of thoracotom y patients A ssessm ent of lung function in thoracotom y pts • A s an anesthesiologist our goal is to : 1) to identify pts at risk of increased post‐op m orbidity & m ortality 2) to identify pts w ho need short‐term or long term post‐op ventilatory support. Produced in collaboration with the Ethiopia Public Health Training Initiative, the Carter Center, the Ethiopia Ministry of Health, and the Ethiopia Ministry of Education. Important Guidelines for Printing and Photocopying Limited permission is granted free of charge to print or photocopy all pages of this publication for educational, not-for-profit use by health care workers, students or faculty. All copies must retain all author credits and copyright notices included in the original document. Under no circumstances is it permissible to sell or distribute on a commercial basis, or to claim authorship of, copies of material reproduced from this publication. Except as expressly provided above, no part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission of the author or authors. This material is intended for educational use only by practicing health care workers or students and faculty in a health care field. Part one includes the following five chapters: Principles of physiology, Excitable tissues (nerve and muscle), physiology of blood, Cardiovascular physiology and Respiratory physiology; Part two contains the following seven chapters: physiology of the renal system, physiology of the gastrointestinal system, physiology of the endocrine system, physiology of the reproductive system, Neurophysiology, physiology of the Special senses and the Autonomic nervous system. We express sincere appreciation to the secretaries for meticulous computer type settings of the teaching material. Concentration and permeability of ions responsible for membrane potential in a resting nerve cell................................ Both structure and function must be studied at all levels from the cellular to the molecular to the intact organism. There is immense genetic diversity, as a result of small spontaneous change in individual genes, called mutation, occurring from time to time. The natural selection concept of Charles Darwin emphasizes the predominance of the genes in the population that favors survival of the fittest and reproduction in a particular environment. Early with life on earth cells developed the ability to react with oxygen and carbon compounds and use the energy released by these chemical reactions. With complexity of development cells evolved structure called mitochondria for efficient energy production. The efficiency of oxidative phosphorylation was maximized in natural selection of the best. Some aspects of human physiology may be rapidly changing on the evolutionary scale of time. The brain capabilities are probably still rapidly evolving as new pressures are faced. For pain with injury, a warning signal results in sudden withdrawal of the injured part, protecting it from further injury. But step-by-step sequence of events starts with the injury and eventually ends with the contraction of group of muscles that flex the injured limb - stimulus, receptor, electric signals, spinal cord, flexor muscles. The circuit that creates this response is genetically determined and is formed during early development of the nervous system. Levels of structural organization: From single cell to organ system cells are the basic units of living organisms. Humans have several levels of structural organizations that are associated with each other. The chemical level includes all chemicals substances essential for sustaining life. The diverse chemicals, in turn, are put together to form the next higher level of organization, the cellular level. The different types of muscle tissue are functional adaptation of the basic contractile system of actin and myosin. Skeletal muscles are responsible for movement of the skeleton, cardiac muscle for the contraction of the heart that causes blood circulation; smooth muscle is responsible for propelling contents within soft hollow organs, such as the stomach, intestine, and blood vessels. Cardiac muscle fibers branch but are separated into individual cell by continuity of the plasma membrane, the intercalated discs. Nervous System- Conducting signals This tissue is specialized for conduction and transmission of electrical impulses and the organization of these nerve cells or neurons is the most complex of any of the tissue. The neuron has a cell body that contains the nucleus and the other organelles with very high metabolic activity. The neuron is further specialized for having processes, which contact it through the synapses to other neurons, making a long chain of conducting tissue linking the various parts of the body. It includes the membranes that cover body surfaces and line hollow viscera internal organs, forming barrier between the interior of the body and the environments.
